ASEAN: Everything you should know
Abstract
This article aims to give an introduction and overview of the regional organization ASEAN, with a specific lens on its history, institutional structure and more. After an introduction to the Association, the article explores the birth of Southeast Asian regionalism post-World War II, analysing multiple bilateral and multilateral agreements pre-ASEAN. Following this, it looks at the establishment of the Association, underlining the organization's initial primary objectives. Subsequently, it considers ASEAN's growth during and post-Cold War, with a particular lens aimed at the 1990s. The paper then dives into ASEAN's institutional framework, giving an overview of the secretariat's structure and exploring the other Charter-based bodies. The article also provides a specific interpretation of the meaning of the "ASEAN Way" and gives a final look at some of the organization’s external economic ties.
Keywords: Southeast Asian Regionalism, History, Organizational Structure, ASEAN Way, Economic and Cultural Cooperation, Development, Free trade agreements
What is ASEAN?
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, or ASEAN, was established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok, with the signing of the ASEAN Declaration by the Founding Fathers of the Association, namely Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. As set out in the ASEAN Declaration, some of the aims and purposes of ASEAN were:
To accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region through joint endeavours in the spirit of equality and partnership;
To promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law in the relationship among countries of the region and adherence to the principles of the United Nations Charter. [1]
Presently, the organization is a ten-member regional bloc comprised of the Association’s Founding Fathers, Brunei, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam. With a combined GDP of $2.8 trillion, [2] a population of 650 million people [3] and a landmass of more than 1.7 million square miles, [4] it is frequently stated that if ASEAN were a single country, it would have the world's fifth-largest economy. [5]
Figure 1: Map of ASEAN (2022). Retrieved February 18, 2022 from: https://ambjakarta.esteri.it/ambasciata_jakarta/it/i_rapporti_bilaterali/asean-association-of-south-east.html
Furthermore, the association maintains privileged relations with other states and organizations, with different levels of association: ASEAN has eleven dialogue partners (Australia, Canada, China, EU, India, Japan, New Zealand, Republic of Korea, Russian Federation, USA and UK), four sectoral dialogue partners (Norway, Pakistan, Switzerland and Turkey) and four development partners (Germany, Chile, France and Italy). [6]
ASEAN has also become the hub of other regional fora such as ASEAN Plus Three (China, Japan and the Republic of Korea), the East Asia Summit and the ASEAN Regional Forum.
History
The beginning of post-war Southeast Asian regionalism
The formation of Southeast Asian regionalism was a process of understanding and cooperation between countries in the region, which were formed in the 1950s and 1960s, shared similar historical heritage and hardships, and possessed geo-cultural resemblance. The critical factor that motivated regionalism formation was the stability of regional politics, regional conflict solution and economic development.
The idea of establishing ASEAN began with a few bilateral and multilateral agreements. This started in 1959 with the Southeast Asia Friendship and Economic Treaty (SEAFET) following the Malayan Prime Minister’s visit to the Philippines. The establishment of SEAFET ultimately failed due to disagreements among several nations. Despite its failure, SEAFET had a positive impact on the establishment of regional organizations. In fact, in 1961, Malaya, Thailand and the Philippines established the Association of Southeast Asia (ASA). ASA’s purpose was to promote regional stability, peace and economic cooperation. However, ASA also experienced failure due to conflicts among its members following the formation of Malaysia. [7]
Following ASA, another regional organization was established, MAPHILINDO. This organization, comprising Malaysia, the Philippines and Indonesia, was born out of these nations’ wish for cooperation. Nevertheless, MAPHILINDO too experienced failure when each country emphasized its national interests and territorial disputes continued. [8]
During this first phase of regional cooperation, Southeast Asian nations’ policies were predominantly based on their national interests rather than their regional ones. This is deeply rooted in their newfound independence and needs to develop and strengthen internal political stability. Furthermore, this tendency of focusing on national sovereignty became, as we will see later on, one of the fundamental aspects of the “ASEAN Way.”
The birth of ASEAN
Following the collapse of MAPHILINDO, a new regional cooperation plan came into the works after the territorial disputes in the region ended. This was due to Indonesia's sudden shift in policy direction and change in leadership after the 1965 coup. As a result, in 1967, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations was established by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand.
ASEAN is a regional organization targeting to establish economic, political, social and cultural cooperation among its members. Through ASEAN's establishment, it prioritizes economic growth and development in the countries of Southeast Asia. This cooperation aims to upgrade society's standard of living and make the region a developed and competitive one. In addition, the association tries to protect mutual interests, create regional solidarity, and promote regional peace and stability. ASEAN aims to encourage peace and political stability founded on the principles of the United Nations (UN), in addition to fostering cooperation and close relationship between nations and other organizations. [9]
ASEAN is not only the product of Southeast Asian nations' will to cooperate economically and settle disputes amongst themselves; instead, it is also the product of international and regional instability and uncertainty. In 1964, following the Gulf of Tonkin incident and the ever-growing US military presence in Vietnam, military conflicts in Indochina seemed never-ending. Furthermore, in 1967, a further shadow was cast over regional security in Southeast Asia by the British announcement of their withdrawal from Suez. [10]
ASEAN’s growth: Cold War
Following the United States' complete withdrawal from Vietnam, the Communist-controlled north occupied the south and took control of the country. In the rest of Indochina, Communist parties also controlled Laos and Cambodia. The Cold War ideological divide, which had split the world in two, also divided the Southeast Asian region.
During the Cold War era, ASEAN's membership grew only by one nation, Brunei, in 1984, following the nation's independence. However, despite its small membership growth, the organization began to grow as an international player. In fact, following Vietnam's invasion of Cambodia, ASEAN regularly submitted motions to the UN denouncing Vietnam's actions and played the role of mediator between the parties concerned in the Cambodia situation.
ASEAN’s growth: Post-Cold War
The 1990s brought enormous change for ASEAN and its members. New international paradigms emerged with the end of the Cold War, such as human rights and democratization, which replaced the conventional ideological antagonism between East and West. [11] Initially, ASEAN nations were confident of their international reputations and opposed western criticism regarding these paradigms. However, the Asian financial crisis of the late 1990s finally pushed said nations to begin looking inward.
The 1990s also marked the Association's opening to the rest of the region. In fact, the organization's membership expanded greatly when Vietnam, Laos and Myanmar, and Cambodia joined, respectively, in 1995, 1997 and 1999. [12] With this, all ten Southeast Asian nations had finally joined ASEAN.
Furthermore, the 1990s allowed ASEAN's extra-regional role to become a reality when the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) was set up in 1994. The objective of the ASEAN Regional Forum is to foster constructive dialogue and consultation on political and security issues of common interest and concern and make significant contributions to efforts towards confidence-building and preventive diplomacy in the Asia-Pacific region. [13]
The ARF helped the Association lay the foundations for non-binding political cooperation in East Asia through fora such as the East Asia Summit and is still a relevant regional forum today. In fact, currently, the ARF's participants, in addition to the ASEAN member states, are Australia, Canada, China, South Korea, the European Union, India, Japan, Mongolia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, North Korea, Russia, Sri Lanka, Timor-Leste and the United States.
Organisational Structure
The ASEAN Secretariat is headquartered in Jakarta, Indonesia, and has numerous offices and administrative centres throughout the region. The ASEAN presidency rotates annually, and the main meetings take place in the respective countries of the presidents. Numerous bodies whose competencies are defined in detail in the ASEAN Charter carry out the functions of ASEAN. The Charter has been in force since 15 December 2008 and has been registered with the United Nations Secretariat under Article 102, paragraph 1 of the United Nations Charter.
The Secretary-General, head of the ASEAN Secretariat, coordinates all the activities of the Association, facilitating the implementation of the agreements and decisions taken within the decision-making and steering bodies. Three divisions and four departments report directly under the Secretary-General; each department having a dense branch of Divisions dedicated to a wide range of entrusted tasks. These are:
Figure 2: ASEAN Secretariat Organisational Structure (2016). Retrieved February 07, 2022 from: https://asean.org/the-asean-secretariat-basic-mandate-functions-and-composition/organizational-structure-of-the-asean-secretariat-2/
In addition to the organizational structure of the Secretariat, ASEAN also consists of Charter-based bodies.
The ASEAN Summit is the supreme decision-making body, playing the role of political guidance regarding the organization's primary objectives and strategic choices. It meets twice a year and is comprised of the ASEAN Heads of State or Government.
The ASEAN Coordinating Council (ACC) is the second-highest body within ASEAN and is comprised of the ASEAN Foreign Ministers. Like the Summit, the ACC meets twice yearly. Based on the ASEAN Charter stipulations, issues that the ACC may discuss include ASEAN's key deliverables during a specific chairmanship year and any other emerging issues that are of priority to ASEAN, especially those that cut across the three ASEAN Community Councils. [14]
Other central bodies in the ASEAN structure are the ASEAN Community Councils (ASEAN Political-Security Community Council, ASEAN Economic Community Council and ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community Council) and the ASEAN Sectorial Ministerial Bodies. In compliance with the guidelines formulated by the ASEAN Summit, the ACC and these bodies have the task of facilitating political integration between the various member countries, presenting recommendations and encouraging ever-greater cooperation in multiple areas of competence. [15]
The ASEAN Way
In their relations with one another, the ASEAN Member States have adopted six fundamental principles, as contained in the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia (TAC) of 1976; here are a few:
The right of every State to lead its national existence free from external interference, subversion, or coercion
Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity, and national identity of all nations;
Non-interference in the internal affairs of one another;
Settlement of differences or disputes in a peaceful manner. [16]
A first glance at these fundamental principles helps underline how ASEAN is different from other regional organizations to which a western reader is accustomed; mainly, the European Union. This is due to ASEAN's normative priors being a combination of anticolonialism, neutralism, and nationalism, all stemming from a common past of oppression and a shared goal of national independence.
In fact, these normative priors gave birth to the organization's consensus decision-making process, its non-intervention principle, and non-binding outcomes. This explains ASEAN's thin institutional structure and is often identified as the "ASEAN Way."
This ASEAN Way plays a major role in underlining the member states’ national independence; however, it comes with its own shortcomings. For example, since 1982 the Myanmar government has denied citizenship to the Rohingya ethnic minority, [17] claiming them to be illegal immigrants from Bangladesh, ignoring centuries of presence in the region and ASEAN is unable to intervene.
ASEAN’s smilingly inaction in this matter stems from the basis of Article 2.2 (e) of the ASEAN Charter, the principle of non-interference. However, due to this limitation, the organization has failed to comply with the Charter’s sanctioned principle from Article 2.2 (i) which states “respect for fundamental freedoms, the promotion and protection of human rights, and the promotion of social justice”.
External Economic ties
The organization has played a major role in Asian economic integration, championing negotiations between Asia-Pacific countries to establish one of the world's largest free trade blocs and signing six free trade agreements (FTAs) with other regional economies, particularly Australia, China, India, Japan, New Zealand, and the Republic of Korea. These FTAs hold enormous economic importance for ASEAN and the Asia-Pacific as a whole.
For example, when the European Union was brought under lockdown in 2020, ASEAN surpassed the EU to become China's greatest trading partner, with annual commerce reaching US$140 billion and accounting for 15% of China's overall trade volume. [18]
Furthermore, the 2020 revision to the Japan and ASEAN FTA will allow for more cross-border investments between Japan and ASEAN, which reached over US$214 billion in 2019 and require countries to maintain transparency in regulating services. This revision also establishes dispute settlement mechanisms for businesses regarding possible unfair treatment by the government, in addition to rules on the movements of foreign business travellers. These rules are of particular importance to Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia which do not have bilateral trade deals with Japan. [19]
Along with Australia, China, Japan, New Zealand, and South Korea, ASEAN signed the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) agreement on November 15, 2020. The RCEP is set to become the world's largest FTA, involving nearly 30% of the global GDP (US$26 trillion) and 30% of the global population. Over the following 20 years, tariffs on 92 percent of goods will be erased under the FTA, which will also consolidate rules of origin (ROO) definitions among member countries. As a result, businesses will only need one certificate of origin to trade in the region. [20]
[1] ASEAN Official Website (2020). Significance of the ASEAN Charter.
[2] Further information available at: https://www.austrade.gov.au/asean-now/why-asean-matters-to-australia/asean-economic-growth/
[3] Further information available at: https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/asean-countries
[4] Further information available at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/1011862/asean-land-surface-country/
[5] ASEAN Official Website (2020). Significance of the ASEAN Charter.
[6] Federal Department of Foreign Affairs FDFA (2022). Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).
[7] M. F. Keling, H. Md Som, M. N. Saludin, Md. S. Shuib and M. N. Ajis (2011).
[8] M. F. Keling, H. Md Som, M. N. Saludin, Md. S. Shuib and M. N. Ajis (2011).
[9] M. F. Keling, H. Md Som, M. N. Saludin, Md. S. Shuib and M. N. Ajis (2011).
[10] K. Shimada (2010).
[11] K. Shimada (2010).
[12] ASEAN Official Website (2020). ASEAN Member States.
[13] ASEAN-Thailand Secretariat Official Website (2019).
[14] ASEAN Official Website (2020). ASEAN Coordinating Council.
[15] Human Rights in ASEAN Website (2022).
[16] ASEAN Official Website (2020). Significance of the ASEAN Charter.
[17] Al Jazeera Staff (2018).
[18] Global Times (2021).
[19] ASEAN Official Website (2020). ASEAN-Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership: Building Strong Economic Partnerships.
[20] S. Suvannaphakdy (2021).
Bibliography
K. Shimada (2010). "Working together" for peace and prosperity of Southeast Asia, 1945 - 1968: The birth of the ASEAN Way. https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/63422/8/02whole.pdf
M. F. Keling, H. Md Som, M. N. Saludin, Md. S. Shuib and M. N. Ajis (2011). The development of ASEAN from historical approach. Asian Social Science, 7 (7). pp. 169-189. ISSN 1911-2017. https://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ass/article/view/6426/7999
S. Suvannaphakdy (2021). RCEP Will Drive ASEAN Economic Recovery.
Sitography
Al Jazeera Staff (2018). Who are the Rohingya? https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2018/4/18/who-are-the-rohingya
ASEAN Official Website (2020). ASEAN Coordinating Council. https://asean.org/about-us/asean-coordinating-council/
ASEAN Official Website (2020). ASEAN-Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership: Building Strong Economic Partnerships. https://www.asean.org/wp-content/uploads/images/2015/October/outreach-document/Edited%20AJCEP.pdf
ASEAN Official Website (2020). ASEAN Member States. https://asean.org/about-asean/member-states/
ASEAN Official Website (2020). Significance of the ASEAN Charter. https://asean.org/about-asean/asean-charter/
ASEAN-Thailand Secretariat Official Website (2019). ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF). https://asean2019.go.th/en/infographic/asean-regional-forum-arf/
Federal Department of Foreign Affairs FDFA (2022). Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). https://www.eda.admin.ch/eda/it/dfae/politica-estera/organismi-internazionali/asean.html
Global Times (2021). ASEAN becomes China's largest trading partner in 2020, with 7% growth. https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202101/1212785.shtml
Human Rights in ASEAN Website (2022). ASEAN Structure. https://humanrightsinasean.info/about-asean/asean-structure/
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